Patriotism corps Uganda

Patriotism day at Gayaza High School

Posted on October 21, 2014

THE GADDAFFI THEY did NOT TELL US ABOUT

Posted on October 29, 2011 Updated on April 3, 2015

THE GADDAFFI THEY ARE NOT TELLING US ABOUT
I do not know how far this is true, but it is food for thought!!!!
The media has successfully painted Gaddafi as a hard-core dictator, tyrant whatever you want to call him. However, the media as usual has also failed to show the kind, giving Gaddafi we never heard of. Gaddafi unlike what a dictator is has managed to show his humane side, the very side we dream of seeing in other dictators who just talk and talk.
I consider Libyans lucky to a certain extent and one wonders with the new democratic rule they cry for will it improve or worsen life for them. Yes, Gaddafi has spent millions of Libya`s money on personal ventures but is the average Libyan poor? We know others who take a country and destroy it until you feel like there is no hope of restoring this country… looting some prefer to call it. Did Gaddafi loot Libya in any way?
Now let us get to the unknown facts about the Muammar Gaddafi:
1. There is no electricity bill in Libya; electricity is free for all its citizens.
2. There is no interest on loans, banks in Libya are state-owned and loans given to all its citizens
at 0% interest by law.
3. Home considered a human right in Libya – Gaddafi vowed that his parents would not get a house
until everyone in Libya had a home. Gaddafi’s father has died while him, his wife and his mother
are still living in a tent.
4. All newlyweds in Libya receive $60,000 Dinar (US$50,000) by the government to buy their
first apartment so to help start up the family.
Traditional wedding in Tripoli, Libya
5. Education and medical treatments are free in Libya. Before Gaddafi only 25% of Libyans are
literate. Today the figure is 83%.
6. Should Libyans want to take up farming career, they would receive farming land, a farming
house, equipments, seeds and livestock to kick-start their farms – all for free.
7. If Libyans cannot find the education or medical facilities they need in Libya, the government
funds them to go abroad for it – not only free but they get US$2,300/mth accommodation and
car allowance.
8. In Libyan, if a Libyan buys a car, the government subsidized 50% of the price.
9. The price of petrol in Libya is $0.14 per liter.
10. Libya has no external debt and its reserves amount to $150 billion – now frozen globally.
Great Man-Made River project in Libya… $27 billion
11. If a Libyan is unable to get employment after graduation the state would pay the average salary
of the profession as if he or she is employed until employment is found.
12. A portion of Libyan oil sale is, credited directly to the bank accounts of all Libyan citizens.
13. A mother who gave birth to a child receive US$5,000
14. 40 loaves of bread in Libya costs $ 0.15
15. 25% of Libyans have a university degree
16. Gaddafi carried out the world’s largest irrigation project, known as the Great Man-Made River
project, to make water readily available throughout the desert country.
Which other dictator has done much good to his people besides.

The truth by Nklm Becky

Posted on October 29, 2011

“Now, not far from our doors, the same imperialists have bombed Libya and the leader is killed. It should not go without saying that the Heroes of Africa that are revered now like Kabaka Mwanga, Kabalega and Lobengula Chief Mkwawa were fought off by imperialists with the help of African collaborators.
They were accused of the same heinous acts that they are busy accusing the Gaddafi. When finall…y History is written, Gaddafi will be most likely be vindicated for having been a man who stood against the imperialists, fought and died for what he believed in.
That history will take note of the fact that despite his many mistakes, he was a Pan Africanist who invested resources in almost all African countries for the benefit of Africans-black, white and Arabs.
He made Libyans walk with their heads held high and now, the imperialists will start making them live on their knees like a supplicant kneeling before a god.
The grim picture of the darkness that has befell Africa is aptly captured by the Irish Poet W.B Yeats in his work: ”The Second Coming”
Turning and turning in the widening gyre,
The falcon cannot hear the falconer;
Things fall apart, the center cannot hold;
Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world;
The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere
The ceremony of innocence is drowned;
The best lack all conviction, while the worst
Are full of passionate intensity….
To the Libyans and Africans in general, the past has been deep, but the worst is coming. The Great Lakes Region of Africa has already started feeling some tremors on account of its huge oil deposits, 6 billion barrels of which are located in Uganda.
The tremors constitute a U.S combat force that has been sent to allegedly hunt for LRA’s Joseph Kony who poses no clear threat to the United States. We will be back to this story next week. Stay tuned!”

The real reason Gaddafi had to be killed!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! by Baguma Gerald

Posted on October 29, 2011 Updated on April 3, 2015

Africans should think about the real reasons why western countries are waging war on Libya, In an analysis that traces the country’s role in shaping the African Union and the development of the continent. It was Gaddafi’s Libya that offered all of Africa its first revolution in modern times – connecting the entire continent by telephone, television, radio broadcasting and several other technological applications such as telemedicine and distance teaching. And thanks to the WMAX radio bridge, a low cost connection was made available across the continent, including in rural areas. It began in 1992, when 45 African nations established RASCOM (Regional African Satellite Communication Organization) so that Africa would have its own satellite and slash communication costs in the continent. This was a time when phone calls to and from Africa were the most expensive in the world because of the annual US$500 million fee pocketed by Europe for the use of its satellites like Intelsat for phone conversations, including those within the same country. An African satellite only cost a onetime payment of US$400 million and the continent no longer had to pay a US$500 million annual lease. Which banker wouldn’t finance such a project? But the problem remained – how can slaves, seeking to free themselves from their master’s exploitation ask the master’s help to achieve that freedom? Not surprisingly, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the USA, Europe only made vague promises for 14 years. Gaddafi put an end to these futile pleas to the western ‘benefactors’ with their exorbitant interest rates. The Libyan guide put US$300 million on the table; the African Development Bank added US$50 million more and the West African Development Bank a further US$27 million – and that’s how Africa got its first communications satellite on 26 December 2007. China and Russia followed suit and shared their technology and helped launch satellites for South Africa, Nigeria, Angola, Algeria and a second African satellite was launched in July 2010. The first totally indigenously built satellite and manufactured on African soil, in Algeria, is set for 2020. This satellite is aimed at competing with the best in the world, but at ten times less the cost, a real challenge. This is how a symbolic gesture of a mere US$300 million changed the life of an entire continent. Gaddafi’s Libya cost the West, not just depriving it of US$500 million per year but the billions of dollars in debt and interest that the initial loan would generate for years to come and in an exponential manner, thereby helping maintain an occult system in order to plunder the continent. AFRICAN MONETARY FUND, AFRICAN CENTRAL BANK, AFRICAN INVESTMENT BANK The US$30 billion frozen by Mr Obama belong to the Libyan Central Bank and had been earmarked as the Libyan contribution to three key projects which would add the finishing touches to the African federation – the African Investment Bank in Syrte, Libya, the establishment in 2011 of the African Monetary Fund to be based in Yaounde with a US$42 billion capital fund and the Abuja-based African Central Bank in Nigeria which when it starts printing African money will ring the death knell for the CFA franc through which Paris has been able to maintain its hold on some African countries for the last fifty years. It is easy to understand the French wrath against Gaddafi. The African Monetary Fund is expected to totally supplant the African activities of the International Monetary Fund which, with only US$25 billion, was able to bring an entire continent to its knees and make it swallow questionable privatisation like forcing African countries to move from public to private monopolies. No surprise then that on 16-17December 2010, the Africans unanimously rejected attempts by Western countries to join the African Monetary Fund, saying it was open only to African nations. It is increasingly obvious that after Libya, the western coalition will go after Algeria, because apart from its huge energy resources, the country has cash reserves of around a 150 billion. This is what lures the countries that are bombing Libya and they all have one thing in common – they are practically bankrupt. The USA alone, has a staggering debt of $US14,000 billion, France, Great Britain and Italy each have a US$2,000 billion public deficit compared to less than US$400 billion in public debt for 46 African countries combined. Inciting spurious wars in Africa in the hope that this will revitalise their economies which are sinking ever more into the doldrums will ultimately hasten the western decline which actually began in 1884 during the notorious Berlin Conference. As the American economist Adam Smith predicted in 1865 when he publicly backed Abraham Lincoln for the abolition of slavery, ‘the economy of any country which relies on the slavery of blacks is destined to descend into hell the day those countries awaken’. REGIONAL UNITY AS AN OBSTABLE TO THE CREATION OF A UNITED STATES OF AFRICA To destabilise and destroy the African union which was veering dangerously (for the West) towards a United States of Africa under the guiding hand of Gaddafi, the European Union first tried, unsuccessfully, to create the Union for the Mediterranean (UPM). North Africa somehow had to be cut off from the rest of Africa, using the old tired racist clichés of the 18th and 19th centuries ,which claimed that Africans of Arab origin were more evolved and civilised than the rest of the continent. This failed because Gaddafi refused to buy into it. He soon understood what game was being played when only a handful of African countries were invited to join the Mediterranean grouping without informing the African Union but inviting all 27 members of the European Union. Without the driving force behind the African Federation, the UPM failed even before it began, still-born with Sarkozy as president and Mubarak as vice president. The French foreign minister, Alain Juppe is now attempting to re-launch the idea, banking no doubt on the fall of Gaddafi. What African leaders fail to understand is that as long as the European Union continues to finance the African Union, the status quo will remain, because no real independence. This is why the European Union has encouraged and financed regional groupings in Africa. It is obvious that the West African Economic Community (ECOWAS), which has an embassy in Brussels and depends for the bulk of its funding on the European Union, is a vociferous opponent to the African federation. That’s why Lincoln fought in the US war of secession because the moment a group of countries come together in a regional political organisation, it weakens the main group. That is what Europe wanted and the Africans have never understood the game plan, creating a plethora of regional groupings, COMESA, UDEAC, SADC, and the Great Maghreb which never saw the light of day thanks to Gaddafi who understood what was happening. GADDAFI, THE AFRICAN WHO CLEANSED THE CONTINENT FROM THE HUMILIATION OF APARTHEID For most Africans, Gaddafi is a generous man, a humanist, known for his unselfish support for the struggle against the racist regime in South Africa. If he had been an egotist, he wouldn’t have risked the wrath of the West to help the ANC both militarily and financially in the fight against apartheid. This was why Mandela, soon after his release from 27 years in jail, decided to break the UN embargo and travel to Libya on 23 October 1997. For five long years, no plane could touch down in Libya because of the embargo. One needed to take a plane to the Tunisian city of Jerba and continue by road for five hours to reach Ben Gardane, cross the border and continue on a desert road for three hours before reaching Tripoli. The other solution was to go through Malta, and take a night ferry on ill-maintained boats to the Libyan coast. A hellish journey for a whole people, simply to punish one man. Mandela didn’t mince his words when the former US president Bill Clinton said the visit was an ‘unwelcome’ one – ‘No country can claim to be the policeman of the world and no state can dictate to another what it should do’. He added – ‘Those that yesterday were friends of our enemies have the gall today to tell me not to visit my brother Gaddafi, they are advising us to be ungrateful and forget our friends of the past.

CONTEMPORARY INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS(IR) & ITS IMPACT ON THE GREAT LAKES REGION.

Posted on October 25, 2011

By LT COL FELIX M KULAYIGYE

Just like human beings, states also relate to each other and this relationship is referred to as International Relations. This relationship covers politics, Economics, Religion, Culture, and Sports. Contemporary IR cannot be effectively analysed without the use of the lens called GLOBALISATION. This is because “Every generation, at least in the 20th century, has some kind of symbolic ideology that gives them a ‘map’ of the world,” says Dr Ian Linden of the School of Oriental and African Studies and author of a new book on Globalisation

Globalization has favoured the west at the expense of the African continent in terms of political, economic, cultural fields; not even Sports has been spared. In this presentation we will endeavour to cover the introduction, definitions, theories of globalization, impacts of globalization on the Great Lakes Region (GLR). The emphasis will be on the impacts.

Introduction

IR

The discipline that studies interactions between and among states, and more broadly, the workings of the international system as a whole. It can be conceived of either as a multidisciplinary field, gathering together the international aspects of politics, economics, history, law, and sociology, or as a meta-discipline, focusing on the systemic structures and patterns of interaction of the human species taken as a whole. The discipline acquired its own identity after the First World War. Its principal branches additional to theory include international political economy, international organization, foreign policy-making, strategic (or security) studies, and, more arguably, peace research.

States engage in international relations in pursuit of their selfish interests, yet according to realists all states are expected to be rational in their behaviour. It is imperative to note that being rational is not synonymous with being moral. Thus a country will pursue her interest without regard to how this pursuit will affect others. International Relations is thus a study of the relations among states and other political and economic units in the international system.

The GLR

The geographic region   known in Africa as “the Great Lakes takes its name from the system of lakes and effluents which drain the Great Rift in east central Africa. They include Lakes Turkana, Rwitanzige (Albert or Mobutu), Rweru ( Edward or Idi Amin), Kivu, Tanganyika, and Malawi. This body of water washes the shores of Kenya, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and Malawi.

Together, the countries of the Great Lakes region accounted for approximately 20 percent of the African population in 1998. Although population density varies from low (Democratic Republic of the Congo and Tanzania) to very high (Rwanda, Burundi, and part of Kenya), the area which is directly adjacent to Lakes Rweru, Rwitanzige, Kivu, and Tanganyika is among the most densely populated in the African continent. The population, which contains a slight majority of women, is mainly under twenty-five years old.

The World Bank classifies the countries of the Great Lakes region in the low-income group. All are severely indebted with a very high ratio of debt service to Gross National Product (GNP) and exports. Ironically, the region is home innumerable natural resources, some of which are very strategic to international peace and stability. Of particular mention are Oil, Uranium, Lithium, Plutonium, Diamond and Coltan.

Globalization a contested concept

I understand that “globalization is a contested concept that refers to sometimes contradictory social process” indeed someone wondered how you can say that the television image of a religious fanatic who denounces modernity and secularization from a mountain cave in Afghanistan perfectly captures the complex of globalization?  Do not these terrible acts of terrorism suggest the opposite, namely, the growth of parochial forces that undermine globalization?

Definition of globalisation

According to Anthony Glidden’s “Globalisation is a comprehensive term for the emergence of a global society in which economic, political, environmental, and cultural events in one part of the world quickly come to have significance for people in other parts of the world”.

David Held, Professor of Political Science at London School of Economics says, “Globalisation may be thought of as a process which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and trans action- assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact- generating transcontinental or interregional flow and network of activity, interaction, and the exercise of power.

According to Rowland Robertson, “Globalization as a concept refers both to compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole.

The term “globalization” has acquired considerable emotive force. Some view it as a process that is beneficial—a key to future world economic development—and also inevitable and irreversible.  Yet some view it as a process that is beneficial—a key to future world economic development—and also inevitable and irreversible.

Economic “globalization” is a historical process, the result of human innovation and technological progress. It refers to the increasing integration of economies around the world, particularly through trade and financial flows. The term sometimes also refers to the movement of people (labour) and knowledge (technology) across international borders. Included in globalization are also broader cultural, political and environmental dimensions of globalization.

Globaliation offers extensive opportunities for truly worldwide development but it is not progressing evenly. Some countries are becoming integrated into the global economy more quickly than others. Countries that have been able to integrate are seeing faster growth and reduced poverty. A combination  of Outward and -oriented policies brought dynamism and greater prosperity to much of East Asia, transforming it from one of the poorest areas of the world 40 years ago. And as living standards rose, it became possible to make progress on democracy and economic issues such as the environment and work standards. By contrast, in the 1970s and 1980s when many countries in Latin America and Africa pursued inward-oriented policies, their economies stagnated or declined, poverty increased and high inflation became the norm.

THE GLOBALISATION DEBATE

Very few people, groups, or governments oppose globalisation in its entirety. Instead, critics of globalisation believe aspects of the way globalisation operates should be changed. The debate over globalization is about what the best rules are for governing the global economy so that its advantages can grow while its problems can be solved.  On one side of this debate are those who stress the benefits of removing barriers to international trade and investment, allowing capital to be allocated more efficiently and giving consumers greater freedom of choice.

With free-market globalisation, investment funds can move unimpeded from where they are plentiful (the rich countries) to where they are most needed (the developing countries). Consumers can benefit from cheaper products because reduced tariffs make goods produced at low cost from faraway places cheaper to buy. Producers of goods gain by selling to a wider market. More competition keeps sellers on their toes and allows ideas and new technology to spread and benefit others. In short, better quality.

On the other hand critics see neo-liberal policies as producing greater poverty, inequality, social conflict, cultural destruction, and environmental damage. They say that the most developed nations—the United States, Germany, and Japan—succeeded not because of free trade but because of protectionism and subsidies. They argue that the more recently successful economies of South Korea, Taiwan, and China all had strong state-led development strategies that did not follow neo-liberalism. These critics think that government encouragement of “infant industries”—that is, industries that are just beginning to develop—enable a country to become internationally competitive.  The following are approaches that explain how globalization and its effects in society.

Political dimension of globalisation

          The politically, this refers to the intensification and expansion of the political interrelation across the globe. This process raises important  political issues pertaining to the principle of state sovereignty, the growing impact of intergovernmental organization and future prospect for regional and global governance. Obviously these themes respond to the evolution of political arrangements beyond the framework of the nation state thus breaking new conceptual ground.  As globalization tendencies grew stronger during the 1970s it became clear that the international society of separate states was turning into a global web of political interdependencies that challenged the sovereignty of the foreign states. The stronger states therefore will seek to control the weaker ones by use of inter state agencies like the UN and all its bodies, the ICC, the ICJ etc.

Economic dimension of globalization

The economic globalisation refers to the intensification and stretching of economic interrelations across the globe.  The gigantic flows of capital and technology have stimulated trade in goods and services. Markets have extended their reach around the world, in the process creating new linkages among the national economies.  Huge transnational corporation, powerful international economic institutions and large regional trading systems have emerged as the major building blocks of the 21^st century’s global economic order.

Internationalisation of trade and finance

The internationalization of trade has gone hand in hand with the liberalisation of financial transaction. Its key component includes the deregulation of interest rates, the removal of credit controls and privatisation of financial institutions.  The less developed countries were instructed to liberalise their economies and stop subsidies to their farmers, yet the Developed economies still subsidise their own! Where is the fairness?

The enhanced role of international economic institutions

The three international institutions most frequently mentioned in the context of economic globalization are the IMF, the World Bank and World Trade Organization.  These three institutions enjoy the privileged position of making and enforcing the rule of global economy that is sustained by significant power differentials between the global north and the south. The IMF and the World Bank emerged from the Breton woods system.  During the cold war, their important functions of providing loans for developing countries became connected to the political objectives the west of containing communism.  Starting in the nineteen seventies and especially after the fall of Soviet Union the economic Agenda of IMF and the World Bank has synchronised neo-liberal interests to integrate and deregulate markets around the world.

In return for supplying much needed loans to developing countries the IMF and the world bank demanded from the creditor nations the implementation of the so called “Structural Adjustment Programmes”.  The official purpose of the structural adjustment programmes was to reform the internal economic mechanism of debtor countries in the developing world so that they would be in better position to repay the debts they had incurred.  In practice, however, the terms of the programme spelt out new form of colonialism.

Secondary, many of the beneficiaries of these loans, not only lacked the necessary infrastructure, like roads and telecommunication, they were bedevilled with un competitive agricultural products, whose prices they did not set, as well as internal corruption by the politicians and bureaucrats that saw these countries sink further in economic doldrums. The national leaders were maintained by these global bodies as long as they served the imperial interest of the west. Those that did not have god fathers, collapsed in the 90s.

Cultural approach

Does globalization make people around the world more alike or more different? A group of commentators we might call pessimistic hyper-globalisers argue in the former.  They suggest that we are not moving towards a cultural rainbow that reflects the diversity of the world existing cultures.  Rather, we are witnessing the rise of an increasingly homogenized popular culture underwritten by a “Western Culture Industry” based in New York, Holy wood, London and Milan.  As evidence of this interpretation, these commentators point to Amazonian Indians Nike training shoes, Palestinian youths proudly displaying their Chicago Bulls sweat shirts in down town Ramallah or the near nakedness of the young people today in Uganda.  Refereeing to the diffusion of Anglo-Americans values and consumer goods as the “Americanization of the world”

Culture, denotes a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms.” Culture not only helps us define ourselves but also is the means by “which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes towards life.” But which “pattern of meanings” should we accept in a world of many cultures? All existing patterns of meaning have lost their relevance, which is endangering our values and cultural norms.

The role of the media

          To a large extent the global cultural flows of our time are generated and directed by global media empires that rely on powerful communications technologies to spread their messages.  Saturating global cultural reality with TV shows and mindless advertisements, these corporations increasingly shape people identities and the structure of desires around the world.  During the last two decades, a small group of transnational corporations (TNCs) have come to dominate the global markets for entertainments.  Africans have to buy media technology and even the way of presenting materials on the televisions stations.

Globalisation of languages

          One direct method of measuring and evaluating cultural changes brought about by globalisation is to study the safety global patterns of language used. The globalisation of languages can be viewed as a process by which some languages are increasingly used in international communication while others lose their prominence and even disappear for lack of speakers.  To be sure the rising significance has a long history, reaching back to the birth of the British colonialism in the late sixteenth century.  At that time, only approximately seven million people used English as their mother tongue.

By the nineteen nineties, this number had swollen to over three fifty million native speakers, with four hundred million more using English as their second language.  Today, more that eighty percent of the content posted on the internet is in English.  Almost half of the world’s growing population of foreign students is enrolled at institution in Anglo American countries.  At the same time, however, the number of spoken languages in the worlds has dropped from fourteen thousand five hundred in 1500 A D to less than seven thousand in the year 2000.  Given the current rate of decline, some linguistics predicts that fifty to ninety percent of the current existing languages will have disappeared by the end of twenty first century. Today people feel more modern if they ape (copy) the American accent of English, as well as spellings in write ups.

Cultural values and environmental degradation

          Two of the major concerns relate to uncontrolled population growth and lavish consumption pattern in the global north.  Since farming economists came into existence about four hundred generations ago, the global population has exploded a thousand fold to more than six billion.  Half of this increase has occurred in the last thirty years.  With the possible exemption of some rodent species, humans are now the most numerous mammals on earth.  Vast increased demands for food, timber and fibre have put severe pressure on the planets ecosystems.  Today, large areas of earth surface, especially in arid and semi arid regions, have nearly ceased to be biologically productive.

Concerns about the relationship between population growth and environmental degradation are frequently focused on, rather narrowly aggregate population levels. Yet the global impact of human on the environment is as much a function of per capita consumption as it is of overall population size.  For example the United States comprises only 6% of the world’s population, but it consumes 30-40% of the planets natural resources.  Today regional over-consumption and uncontrolled population growth present a serious problem to the health of our planet

Ideological dimension of globalisation 

An ideology can be defined as a system of well shared ideas, patterned beliefs, guiding norms and values, and ideas accepted as truth by a particular group of people. Ideologists offer individuals a more or less coherent picture of the world not only as it is but also as it ought to be. In doing so they help organize the tremendous complexity of human experience into fairly simple, but frequently distorted, images that serve as guide and compass for social and political actions. These simplified and distorted ideas are often employed to legitimise certain political interest or to defend dominant power structures seeking to induce the society with the preferred norms and values, ideologies present the public with the circumscribed agenda of things to discuss, claims to make, and questions to ask.

Like all social processes, globalisation contains an ideological dimension filled with range of norms, claims, beliefs, and narratives about the phenomenon itself. For example, the heated public debate over whether globalisation represents a good or bad thing occurs in the arena of ideology.

Unparalleled growth

Globalisation is not just a recent phenomenon and some analysts have argued that the world economy was just as globalised 100 years ago as it is today. But today commerce and financial services are far more developed and deeply integrated than they were at that time. The most striking aspect of this has been the integration of financial markets made possible by modern electronic communication.  The 20^th century saw unparalleled economic growth, with global per capita GDP increasing almost five-fold. But this growth was not steady—the strongest expansion came during the second half of the century, a period of rapid trade expansion accompanied by trade—and typically somewhat later, financial—liberalisation.

In the inter-war era, the world turned its back on internationalism—or globalisation as we now call it—and countries retreated into closed economies, protectionism and pervasive capital controls. This was a major factor in the devastation of this period, when per capita income growth fell to less than 1 percent during 1913-1950. For the rest of the century, even though population grew at an unprecedented pace, per capita income growth was over 2 percent, the fastest pace of it coming during the post-World War boom in the industrial countries.

The story of the 20^th century was of remarkable average income growth, but it is also quite obvious that the progress was not evenly dispersed. The gaps between rich and poor countries, and rich and poor people within countries, have grown. The richest quarter of the world’s population saw its per capita GDP increase nearly six-fold during the century, while the poorest quarter experienced less than a three-fold increase .Income inequality has clearly increased. But, as noted below, per capita GDP does not tell the whole story.

Effects of Globalisation on the GL Region.

If the natural laws of the market have indeed preordained a neo-liberal course of history, then globalisation does not reflect the arbitrary agenda of a particular social class or group.  In that case, globalists merely carry out the unalterable imperatives of a transcendental force.  People are not in charge of globalisation. A United States economist Paul Krugman pointed out that “many on the left dislike the global market place because it epitomises what they dislike about markets in general: the fact that nobody is in charge.  The truth is that the invisible hand rules most domestic markets, too, a reality that most Americans seem to accept as a fact of life.”   Moreover, Robert Hormats, the Vice Chairman of Goldman Sachs international observed that “the great beauty of globalisation is that no one is in control.  The great beauty of globalisation is that it is not controlled by any individual, any government, and any institution.  These views are certainly not correct in the sense that global markets do not proceed outside the realm of human choice.  The substance and the direction of globalization are to a significant degree shaped by American domestic and foreign policy.

Positive aspects of globalization on the south

The positive effects of Liberalisation or globalization has been to push countries to near political integration/cooperation so that it can serve as a vehicle for non discriminatory liberalisation of multi-lateral trade and integration into the global economy and assert their interests from a stronger and more confident position politically in the international arena.

Liberalisation with its ambitious reform programmes also facilitate domestic implementation of politically difficult measures such as lowering tariffs or instituting wide ranging reforms of regulatory and judicial system and macroeconomic policies resulting into a stable, predictable and peaceful environment in order to attract private sector investment. This however requires political will to adhere to regional integration objectives and to give them priority over domestic considerations which is usually difficult especially when elections are around the corner.

Negative aspects of globalization on the south

An estimated 1.3 billion people, or about one-sixth of the world’s population, have incomes of less than a dollar a day. Inequality is growing worse, rather than better. More than 80 countries had lower per capita income (income per person) at the end of the 1990s than they had at the end of the 1980s. In 1960 the top 20 percent had 30 times the income of the poorest 20 percent. This grew to 32 times in 1970, 45 times in 1980, and 60 times in 1990. By the end of the 20th century the top 20 percent received 75 times the income of the bottom 20 percent. The income gap is even apparent in cyberspace. The top fifth in income make up 93 percent of the world’s Internet users and the poorest fifth only 0.2 percent.

These inequalities in income and hence living standards and participation in the global economy are a serious political problem in an era of globalisation. Some countries have been unable to function at even a minimum standard of basic competence in the globalised economy. The only profitable economic activity in some of these countries is linked to criminal behaviour, such as the trade in illegal drugs, smuggling, and extortion of various kinds. The case of Piracy in the Indian Ocean cannot be ignored. Governments that are helpless to stop such activity or to collect taxes to meet basic public service needs are characterized as failed states. Somalia is the most vivid example, while Uganda almost became such.

Sometimes failed states can become havens for terrorists and foreign criminals who use them as bases for activities harmful to other governments and their people like Al-Qaida back in Somalia. These states may also provide safe haven for mercenary forces that conduct raids into neighbouring countries. In parts of Africa, for example, where diamonds and other valuable resources attract criminal despots, mercenary armies have been engaged in mass killing to terrorise local populations into giving them what they want eg Sierra Leone and Democratic Republic of  Congo. The international arms trade and easy importation of weapons, which allows such behaviour, is a serious problem

Slow growth of the developing country’s markets and continent restrictions of access in areas of export interests to developing countries have slowed the pace of their export earnings and by leading to terms of trade loss. Trade liberalisation widens the deficits in the short run as this produces an upsurge in imports where protection was excessive and import substitution strategies were not successful.

The GLR experienced slow growth during the 1980s and has not improved much to date with the exception of former conflict ridden countries of Uganda and Rwanda. The combination of slow growth in demand and the attempt by many African countries to capture the same export markets would likely lead to estimation of talking terms of trade. African countries have indeed expanded both the volume of and value of their exports over the past few years but this has not allowed them to experience a similar increase in the purchasing power of their exports due to the lopsided pricing and unfair tariff controls imposed by the developed countries.

It can be noted that many claims made by the west on gains of trade liberalisation are not supported by facts e.g. most African countries have suffered at the hands of liberalising trade barriers in agriculture and textiles. Yet the developed world has continued to gain. While many parts of the world have moved towards greater political and economic stability and cooperation; Africa especially sub Saharan Africa and the GLR in particular, remains in a cauldron of political instability and inter dependence phenomenon which emerged especially at the end of the cold war.

While economic inter dependence and liberalization has been praised as the only way forward for global economic development especially by the west it is it is blamed as the source of political conflict in Africa e.g. The DRC, Sierra Leone, Nigeria. The socio-political conflicts in Africa therefore have both national and international under pinning related to liberalisation because of the circumstances surrounding the acquisition of independence, the multi ethnic composition of states and the usually non-specific governance.

Liberalisation has led to pluralist shaky democracies because multi-partism was forced onto the poor countries as a condition for aid. These multi-parties as they are have polarized societies along religious, ethnic and regional lines because of lack of developed or matching social classes leading to political factionalism and disunity.

How the Poorest Countries Catch Up

Growth in living standards springs from the accumulation of physical capital (investment) and human capital (labour), and through advances in technology (what economists call total factor productivity). Many factors can help or hinder these processes. The experience of the countries that have increased output most rapidly shows the importance of creating conditions that are conducive to long-run per capita income growth. Economic stability, institution building, and structural reform are at as important if not more, for long-term development as financial transfers, important as they are. What matters is the whole package of policies, financial and technical assistance, and debt relief if necessary.

Components of such a package might include firstly, macroeconomic stability to create the right conditions for investment and saving, secondly, outward oriented policies to promote efficiency through increased trade and investment and structural reform to encourage domestic competition.  Others are strong institutions and an effective government to foster good governance, education, training, and research and development to promote productivity and finally external debt management to ensure adequate resources for sustainable development.

All these policies should be focused on country-owned strategies to reduce poverty by promoting pro-poor policies that are properly budgeted for; including health, education, and strong social safety nets. A participatory approach, including consultation with civil society, will add greatly to their chances of success.  Advanced economies can make a vital contribution to the low-income countries’ efforts to integrate into the global economy by promoting trade through firstly, providing unrestricted market access for all exports from the poorest countries which should help them move beyond specialisation on primary commodities to producing processed goods for export, secondly, by encouraging flows of private capital to the lower-income countries, particularly Foreign Direct Investment, with its twin benefits of steady financial flows and technology transfer.

The other factor is through supplementing more rapid debt relief with an increased level of new financial support. Official development assistance (ODA) has fallen to 0.24 percent of GDP (1998) in advanced countries (compared with a UN target of 0.7 percent). In any case Foreign Aid has never developed a country.

The IMF supports reform in the poorest countries through its new Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility. It is contributing to debt relief through the initiative for the heavily indebted poor countries (HIPIC).

Challenges to globalization

 The dominant ideology of our time, globalism has chiseled into the minds of many people around the world a neo-liberal understanding of globalization, which, in turn, is sustained and reconfirmed by the powerful political institutions and economic corporations.  Yet no single ideology enjoys absolute dominance and gaps between ideological claims and peoples experience may usher in a crisis for the dominant paradigm.

Conclusion

The true test of the credibility of industrial countries’ efforts to combat poverty in the world lies in their willingness to open their markets to poor countries’ exports more than emphasising development assistance. The governments and parliaments in industrial countries have more than a moral obligation here. They must, at least, allow developing countries and the GLR in particular free access to their markets. It is political and economic madness for OECD countries to spend US$360 billion a year on agricultural subsidies, while poverty rages in developing countries, especially in the rural and farming regions. It is also overdue for industrial countries to honour their commitment to provide 0.7 percent of GNP for official development assistance. After all it is our money that has been robbed over the years.

On the other hand, it is the task of domestic governments to tap the opportunities of globalisation, while limiting its risk because it is here to stay anyways. The opportunities it affords are higher productivity, increased trade, stronger growth dynamics, and more jobs and higher incomes. In my view, globalization also offers a chance to attain a new awareness of the interdependence of developments all over the world. The risks lie in overstretching the ability of societies and political structures to adapt, and in financial crises caused as a consequence of excessive volatility in capital flows. The central problem is, however, the fact that too many people have so far had no share of the gains in the prosperity that was brought about by globalization. The successful fight against poverty and ensuring an educated, health population is, in my view, the key to peace in the Great Lakes Region in this century.

WAYS OF THINKING

Posted on October 25, 2011

WAYS OF THINKING 

   BY PAUL ODAUK.

  (Deputy Head- National Secretariat for Patriotism Clubs)

BACKGROUND     

When political education courses were started those who were conducting these courses were themselves learning from the rapid dynamics of our national socio-political life. The issue of negative attitudes to ourselves & to our country was identified as a critical problem requiring to be urgently addressed. A number of topics were identified and taught in all ideological re-orientation programs. After a few years, it was realised that something fundamental was still missing. Those who had gone through Kyankwanzi still exhibited the same old attitudes & methods of analysis. Thus a conclusion was reached that  additional skills and tools of analysis were needed to enable leaders to;

1. Develop common approaches to issues and problems. It had been noted that in many cases, people came up with several varying, and often irreconcilably opposed points of view on issues of National importance. Such a situation was proving to be harmful to efforts at unifying the country in order to forge ahead with re-building and developing the economy. It is almost like a sick person going to hospital and having four doctors each making a different diagnosis thus each one prescribing a different medicine.  In a hospital setting, such a scenario would almost certainly spell death for the patient. Uganda has for long suffered delays in implementation of socio-economic programmes, sometimes at a considerable cost to the country. Lack of consensus in the decision making processes often leads to paralysis. Many such disagreements affect strategic programmes/projects. Such is the case in issues such as;-

• Whether or not we should build Hydro-power dams!
• Whether to federate at the regional (East African) level or internally within our borders.
• Whether or not we benefit from FDI and if so, how to maximize the benefits to Uganda.

When one listens to day-to-day socio-political discussions amongst Ugandans, it is discernible that the emotional baseline is usually informed by regional, ethnic or religious prejudices often to the exclusion of broader National Interests. Indeed many are not easily able to relate their personal needs beyond the dimensions of their immediate environment, community, ethnicity, religion etc.

The starting point of political discussions should be common, mutually agreed interests, goals, values and standards .

The failure to agree on a definition of the “common good” alluded to above, to a large extent, explains some of our past internal violence fueled by ill-informed group-suspicion.

This paper is an attempt to contribute to the quest for re-discovery and definition of the “common good” by providing a theoretical basis for a National dialogue in our on-going quest for a truly National identity and consciousness- ie Patriotism.

This paper is by no means exhaustive; rather it is intended to provoke national soul searching with the hope that we look at our past and discover therein the “actual” as opposed to the “perceived” causal factors of our tragic history and use such findings to build and anchor a secure future for our selves and our posterity. It must however be emphasised that the subject-matter  tackled here is limited to that which will enable the participant acquire a broader, more scientific and practical world outlook to assist him/her carry out informed and more effective decision making, i.e. exercise scientific leadership. It is not a trip into “academia”!

1. Acquire a scientific method of analysing phenomena based on the realisation that every process is related to many other processes in the world (universe).
2. Appreciate that change is continuous in all systems & is a prerequisite for development  socio-economic transformation of the Ugandan masses.

In the course of history, several specialized bodies of knowledge have evolved; for example natural sciences (physics, mathematics, chemistry, geology, medicine, engineering, architecture etc); social sciences like history, economics, sociology etc. The knowledge acquired by an individual tends to dictate how that person approaches issues. A religious person is always conscious of the omni-presence of sin and looks for all answers from the scriptures. A doctor tends to suspect the presence of disease in anyone he/she sees. An architect is always mentally trying to perfect the angles in a very building. A natural scientist tends to approach issues through observation, experimentation and proof- measuring and testing in order to find answers or solutions. A historian tends to look into the background of phenomena in order to explain them. Thus do the different bodies of knowledge possessed by an individual determine his/her approach to issues.

It has been recognised, however, that there is knowledge that applies across the board. All the bodies of knowledge are connected at a certain level and are merely different aspects of the common body of knowledge – the totality of all knowledge accumulated throughout the history of human society. This is the universal intersection, interconnection that unifies all knowledge at one level and differentiates it at another. This interconnection of all the bodies of knowledge held by an individual determines the way that individual interprets the world. It shapes the individual’s world. The more knowledgeable a person is the broader his/her world out look and consequently the better that person is able to correctly interpret the world around him/her. A clearer understanding of events or phenomena, is a priceless advantage in the decision making process, i.e. leadership.

This paper deals with the way one looks at and interprets the world in general, that is a person’s “world outlook”.

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The Basic Question of Thinking.

          , human beings have developed systems of thought that reflect their understanding of, and relationship with, the world around them. Over time, two major divisions or systems of human thinking have emerged. These two systems of human thought are irreconcilably opposites of each other in the way they answer “the Basic Question of Thinking”. This question is in two parts namely;

1.                                                         i.            What is primary, thinking (consciousness) or being (existence)?

This aspect of the question seeks to find out whether thoughts (ideas, consciousness) are independent of material forms of existence, whether ideas exist on their own and may even determine the existence of the world. Does the world  exist independent of our consciousness or does it  exist only because of our awareness of it? Do things come into existence when they are found?

1.                                                       ii.            Is the world knowable?

Is it possible for a person to know the world or not? Can a person’s consciousness correctly reflect the world around us, i.e. objective reality?

The Answers

In human history, attempts to deal with the basic question of thinking have led to the emergence of the two “Schools of Thought”, namely:

(a)               Idealism

(b)               Materialism

These two schools of thought give opposite answers to the basic (fundamental) question of thinking.

Idealism.

i)                    On the first part of the basic question, Idealists believe that consciousness is primary to being (matter); that thinking and ideas exist independent of, and outside, matter; that consciousness exists before matter and even determine the existence of matter. For example, they believe that a person is born with certain basic social notions & that these congenital ideas in determine our cultural identity, conduct, beliefs, etc.

Some would say that the world does not exist unless there is an awareness of its existence; nothing exists unless we are aware of it (subjective idealism).

ii)                  On the second part of the basic question, Idealists believe that the world is not knowable. They believe that the world is an eternal mystery that cannot be understood; that the knowledge we are born with is sufficient. This is the attitude of fatalists and agnosticists who believe that any attempt to know the world is a waste of time.

Scientific Thinking (Materialism

In answer to the first part of the basic question, modern scientific thinking holds that

1)      The material world is primary to consciousness;

–       it existed before consciousness developed.

–       matter determines its own existence, is independent of consciousness, and is the source of consciousness,

–       without matter, consciousness cannot exist.

–       consciousness is but a mere subjective reflection of objective reality.

ii) The world is knowable; that it is possible to study the world, understand it and, as need be, change it. The duty of leaders is to organise society towards this goal of understanding, changing and conquering nature, putting it to the service of human beings.

Therefore it is important that leaders embrace this scientific thinking. It is essentially a practical approach to problem solving and is consistent with the historical mission of our generation- ie to transform our country from its current state of backwardness and underdevelopment into a modern, industrialized and developed knowledge-based one. As we all struggle to transform Uganda, we cannot hold an outlook that the world cannot be changed.

This scientific world outlook teaches us that the world/universe exists as a complex of material processes in constant motion (change) and development. It is the mastery and directional control of these complex processes that should pre-occupy leaders of society in the quest to domesticate nature to serve humanity.

Reality & Consciousness

(i)                 Consciousness is a reflection of reality. It is a function of the human brain & cannot exist on its own. It is subject to the occurrence of material processes.

(ii)               Matter exists outside & independent of our consciousness. It exists because of itself, as it is and not because of our desires. Therefore, matter exists “objectively”.

(iii)             All material processes exist as “Motion within Space and Time”. Since space is infinite, material processes are therefore infinite.  Motion is also consequently endless.

(iv)             Effective leadership demands a clear grasp of the full scope of socio-economic motion and development, the underlying causal factors of social development

DIALECTICS.

Dialectics is a method of analysis. It is a scientific method i.e. it employs observation, investigation and experimentation before coming to a conclusion. Dialectics studies interconnections, interrelations and interpenetrations. In dialectics, there are three basic principles that are followed as below;

i).   Principle of Objectivity:

This means that we should look at a situation as it is and not as we want or wish it to be. This principle makes it possible for the analyst to work towards minimising the effect of his/her personal biases on the conclusions he/she eventually arrives at in the analysis. While it is extremely difficult to completely eliminate personal bias, the more one practices dialectics, the easier it becomes to minimise it. That’s why experience is often a major factor in consistent successful management.

ii).  Principle of Concrete historical analysis:

This is an analysis that begins by first studying the historical background of situations. Every subject of analysis/study has a given sequence/stages in its development. It is not possible to fully understand a given situation without reference to its history; the various stages it went through in its development explain it’s current presentation. To ignore this principle is to commit “managerial suicide.”

iii). Principle of the main link

Here, the analyst/investigator, while recognising the numerous connections, interconnections, relations and interrelations in a situation, deliberately focuses on those that he/she recognises as crucial to the purpose for his/her inquiry or investigation. Failure to do this means risking getting lost in the myriad(complexity) of distinct parts/aspects that constitute any situation in the world. The principle of the main link leads to the emergence of different specialties/fields of study eg. Physics, Chemistry, Biology, History, Geography, etc. Each of these concentrates on particular processes of nature.

Thus, the material world is best understood in its complexity using the dialectical method of analysis. Therefore, the correct method of thinking to be studied by all leaders is dialectical materialism.

            Universal laws of dialectics.

      These are the three most general laws of development.

1)      Transformation of quantity to quality and  vice versa.

All processes in nature are constantly  undergoing quantitative and qualitative changes. Sustained quantitative accumulation eventually leads to a change in the quality/qualities of a system. The reverse is also true. This interplay between quantity and quality constitutes the first law (universal constant) of dialectics. So to transform society, for example, we need for sustained cumulative infusion of knowledge, skills and better tools of production. In time, the desired transformation will occur. This however takes a while. Leaders need to appreciate that the key ingredients are knowledge and skills. Therefore, the introduction of UPE, USE, and the expansion of post-secondary education will inevitably lead to accelerated, radical and irreversible change in the quality of Ugandan society. There is need, however, to pay attention to requisite skills and technology, thus need for expanded technical education

2)      Unity and struggle of opposites:

Every process and phenomenon in nature is a combination of opposite tendencies, which constantly struggle with one another. They are opposite yet inseparable. This unity and struggle of opposites is called contradiction. Contradictions are the basis of development; they emerge, develop and mature, leading to a crisis and are then resolved. The resolution of contradictions leads to the emergence of new contradictions and the process is repeated over and over again. However each cycle of emergence, growth and resolution of contradictions leads to development.

Effective leadership therefore, requires the ability to accurately foresee future contradictions that will emerge out of resolving today’s contradictions. In this way leaders will be in a position to pro-actively plan to deal with emerging future scenarios

Emergence  New  Of  Maturatio  Resolution  contradictions  Contradiction

3)      Negation of the negation:

This is where the new replaces the old, but what is useful in the old is taken up and contained within (sublated by) the new. New systems replace old one, not by rejecting all that is old but by gradual sequenced and piecemeal replacements. This ensures continuity and stability in the system. For example a baby is born with the useful genetic information inherited from its parents for the continuity of the species but the old physical bodies of the parents are not retained by the new born; HE. The President, by including a number of political actors from past regimes when forming the broad-based Government of 1986, demonstrated awareness of this scientific law.

To summarise the three Universal Laws of Development, it can be stated that…..”Quantity is transformed into quality and vice-versa, through a process of dialectical negation arising out of the emergence, development, maturation and resolution of contradictions”.

All this means that materialism helps us to identify the motive forces of history so that we know what causes change and therefore learn to manage it.

Categories of dialectics.

i).         Matter.

This is a concept that describess the world around us (i.e.objective reality), which we can become aware of using our senses (sight, smell, hearing, taste & touch). This concept of matter is the broadest possible idea because it is infinite. Matter refers to every thing that exists in the universe; both physical and non-physical. It therefore follows that sound, light, magnetism, gravity, radio waves, heat etc, are all forms of matter in motion.

            ii).        Consciousness.

This is a unique attribute of the most highly organized matter (the human brain), possessing the distinct characteristic of the ability to reproduce images of material processes through the activities of memory. In addition, human consciousness advances itself through imagination and abstract thinking. Consciousness is the subjective reflection (image) of objective reality.

iii).       Society.

A historically determined organization of human beings engaged in labour processes to satisfy their needs. The word “society” exclusively refers to human organisation formed in the cause of history. In other words, specific forms of social organisation emerge at different levels of social development. The more developed society is the more complex its social organisation (details of forms of social organisation & how they emerge are discussed in the “Political Economy”)

iv).       Social Classes.

These are very large groups of people differing from one another by;

– their relationship to the means of production (who owns the land, factories, hotels, companies etc…..the nature of labour- mental, physical)

– how much of the products of labour they consume and

– how they obtain their share (eg through appropriating for themselves,……wages, salaries, commissions, etc).

Classes are groups of people some of whom appropriate the products of the labour of others.

Examples of social classes include peasants, working class (proletariat), middle class, upper classes. The middle class are usually in layers (lower-middle, middle & upper-middle). The upper classes include the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) & the Aristocracy.

In modern societies, the dominant social class relations are unfriendly (antagonistic) due to contradictory class interests. This leads to perpetual class struggles. For example, capitalist owners of factories always wish to keep the costs of production low by, for example, increasing working hours while minimizing wages; Factory workers on the other hand struggle for the opposite- shorter working hours and higher wages. The struggle between these classes over time not only sustains the factory but leads to radical developments in productivity & labour relations

v).        The State.

This is an arrangement of instruments, tools, apparatus, mechanisms, and weaponry in the hands of the ruling class, allied classes or social groups. Modern states are mostly controlled by alliances of classes.

The cardinal functions of the state are;-

¨      To project, promote & defend the socio-economic aspirations (interests) of the ruling class, classes or social groups.

¨      To guard against other political, social and economic  interests that may injure those it stands for.

Every State must project, enforce and protect the will of those whose economic interests it represents. For example, being a product of a peoples’ armed struggle, the Ugandan State should at all times, reflect, project and protect the socio-economic aspirations of the majority peasants

Paired categories.

i). The individual and the Universal.

What is individual differentiates a process or phenomenon from all others; the universal is what is common to all or a group of processes or phenomena. One needs to always differentiate what is unique and individual from the general or universal. Often times one hears people making inaccurate generalisations like…….these Baganda…….these Karimojong etc basing on encounters with one or two.

ii)  Necessity and Chance.

A necessary process or phenomenon is a stage which must follow from another, a chance event is one out of many that could follow. People often mistake chance for necessity. For example, while it is necessary that Uganda should have heads of Government departments, it is not necessary that a particular individual occupies an office at a particular time. This is a chance event. So being or not being appointed should be treated not as necessary, but chance events.

iii)                Possibility and Reality.

Reality is what already exists; possibility is reality in its potential form. What is possible is potential reality for whose occurrence the necessary laws exist. Something for which the laws exist for it to happen is a real possibility. A process for whose occurrence there exist no laws at all is an impossibility. However, there are some possibilities which are unlikely to become reality (eg. the moon being pulled down to earth in the course of tonight). Such possibilities are called “formal possibilities”.

It is necessary that we study certain processes so as to judge the degree of possibility. This enables the leaders to forecast likely occurrences and prepare for the consequences.

iv).  Essence and Appearance.

The above two generally differentiate between the substance or necessary attributes of a process or phenomenon (content or essence), and the structure in which the process or phenomenon expresses itself externally. For example, the essence of democracy is government of the people, by the people and for the people, while the appearance may be multi-party or movement political systems.

v).  Form and Content.

This category is closely related to No. 4 above.

       vi).  Cause and Effect.

Cause is what brings a process into being: effect is the resultant of a cause. An effect comes after its cause. However care should be taken to avoid mistaking coincidence for a cause-effect relationship. For instance, day follows night and night follows day, but night is not the cause of day and day should not be accused of causing night. The cause of both day & night is the rotation of the earth on its axis. One cause may have more than one effect while similarly different causes may have the same effect

vii) Continuity & Discontinuity

Every moment in a sequence of processes marks the end of one stage and the beginning of another. So there is an absolutely new process without a history or antecedents; similarly, there is no absolute end beyond which nothing exists/happens.

References.

1. i.            Materialism and the Dialectical Method (Vol.1) by Maurice Cornforth
2. ii.            Historical Materialism (Vol. II)………………………      “                “
3. iii.            Theory of Knowledge (Vol. III)……………………..       “                “